Russia-Ukraine conflict. A perception of nationalism induced issue.

The ongoing conflict between Russia and Ukraine isn't just a clash of armies; it's a deeply rooted ideological battle fueled by competing nationalisms. Understanding this complex interplay is crucial to grasping the origins and potential future of this crisis. Let's delve into the intertwined histories and the rise of nationalist sentiments that have led to this devastating conflict.

A Shared Past, Diverging Paths

The story begins in Kyivan Rus', a medieval state considered the birthplace of both Russian and Ukrainian nations. Kyiv, a city of immense cultural and religious significance, is often called "the mother of Russian cities". The adoption of Christianity from Byzantium via Kyiv in the 8th and 9th centuries laid a foundation for a shared heritage.

However, while Russia often emphasizes this shared ancestry as a basis for unity, Ukraine highlights its distinct development even within this early period. The Slavic languages diverged, with Russian becoming the least mutually intelligible, suggesting separate evolutionary paths.

Following the fragmentation of Kyivan Rus', the paths of Russia and Ukraine diverged significantly. Ukraine fell under the influence of Lithuania and Poland, fostering unique cultural and political experiences. The emergence of the Cossacks in the 16th century, freemen who defended Ukraine in exchange for independence, became a cornerstone of Ukrainian identity. Figures like Bohdan Khmelnytsky, who led a major Cossack uprising in the 17th century, symbolize Ukraine's struggle for self-determination.

The Treaty of Pereiaslav in 1654, an alliance between the Cossacks and Moscovia against Poland, marked a turning point. While sometimes portrayed as a voluntary union, it initiated a gradual annexation of Ukrainian territories by the Russian Empire over centuries. By the late 18th century, Ukraine's autonomy was dismantled, and policies of Russification aimed to suppress Ukrainian language and culture were implemented. Decrees like the Ems Ukaz of 1876 explicitly banned most Ukrainian language publications and performances. Ironically, these suppressive measures strengthened a distinct Ukrainian identity in opposition to Russian rule.

The collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917 offered a brief period of Ukrainian independence, declared in January 1918. However, this was short-lived, and by 1922, most of Ukraine was forcibly incorporated into the Soviet Union. The Soviet era was a complex mix of initial support for national movements followed by intense Russification and brutal suppression, including the Holodomor famine in the 1930s.

Ukraine finally achieved independence with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Initial relations with Russia were peaceful, but Ukraine's aspiration to align with the West, including the EU and NATO, increasingly strained relations with Russia, which sought to maintain its influence in the region.

The Rise of Ukrainian Nationalism: A History of Resistance

Early forms of Ukrainian nationalism can be traced to the Cossack uprisings against foreign rule. The Cossacks, with their tradition of self-governance, provided foundational myths for Ukrainian identity. Figures like Khmelnytsky and Hetman Ivan Mazepa, who focused on Ukrainian culture in the early 18th century, are central to this narrative.

Modern Ukrainian nationalism took shape in the 19th century, influenced by European nationalist movements. Intellectuals and cultural figures promoted the Ukrainian language and a distinct historical narrative. Despite Russification policies, a sense of national consciousness grew.

The 20th century saw the rise of more radical nationalism, particularly in Western Ukraine under Polish rule. The lack of an independent state after the Ukrainian War of Independence fueled these movements. The Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), founded in 1929, aimed for an ethnically homogenous state through revolutionary means, leading to controversial collaborations with Nazi Germany during World War II.

After Ukraine's independence in 1991, nationalism played a key role in state-building and responding to Russian influence. The discourse around civic versus ethnic nationalism has been prominent. Events like the Orange Revolution (2004) and Euromaidan protests (2013-2014) strengthened the desire for Western ties and distanced Ukraine from Russia. Russia's annexation of Crimea and support for separatists in 2014 further solidified anti-Russian sentiment and a focus on sovereignty.

The Ascent of Russian Nationalism: From Empire to "Russian World"

Post-Soviet Russian nationalism emerged from the late Soviet period, with the collapse of the USSR in 1991 creating an identity vacuum. Various nationalist tendencies arose, including imperialist, isolationist, and liberal strands. The loss of the Soviet empire was a traumatic experience, fueling a desire to restore Russia's great power status.

Vladimir Putin's rise in 2000 marked a turning point, fostering a nationalism emphasizing state power, traditional values, and a historical mission. This ideology draws on historical concepts and the idea of a "Russian World," a broader cultural and linguistic community encompassing Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus. While initially cultural, this concept has been used to justify intervention in Ukraine.

Russian nationalism under Putin has shaped foreign policy, viewing Ukraine's sovereignty as conditional and its westward orientation as a threat. The narrative of Ukraine as an artificial state or "historical part of Russia" has been promoted. Ukrainian nationalism has been portrayed as "Nazism" or "Russophobia" to legitimize actions against Ukraine. The concept of "civilizational nationalism" further underpins Russia's approach, positioning Russia as a unique Eurasian civilization with a responsibility for the "Slavic brotherhood".

The Turning Point: 2014 and the Intensification of Conflict

The year 2014 was a watershed moment with the Ukrainian Revolution of Dignity (Euromaidan) and Russia's annexation of Crimea. The Euromaidan protests, triggered by President Yanukovych's rejection of an EU agreement, were seen by Russia as a Western-backed coup.

Russia swiftly annexed Crimea in March 2014, citing the need to protect Russian citizens and historical claims. This annexation was condemned internationally.

These events significantly impacted Ukrainian nationalism, galvanizing national identity and strengthening anti-Russian sentiment. Russia's actions consolidated national unity around resisting Russian expansionism. In Russia, the annexation was portrayed as a patriotic victory, boosting Putin's popularity and strengthening nationalist sentiments.

NATO's Role: Security Concerns and Nationalist Narratives

NATO's eastward expansion since the Cold War has been a major point of contention, fueling Russian nationalist narratives. Russia views it as a threat to its security interests and a violation of perceived assurances. NATO maintains its "open door" policy and asserts it poses no threat to Russia.

Ukraine's NATO aspirations are particularly sensitive for Russia, which sees it as a red line. Russian nationalist narratives frame this as an unacceptable expansion of Western military infrastructure.

Experts have differing views on NATO's role. Some argue it contributed to Russia's insecurity, while others believe Russia's aggression stems from imperial ambitions and fear of democracy in Ukraine.

The Donbas Conflict: A Battleground of Nationalisms

The conflict in Donbas erupted in April 2014, fueled by Russian support for separatists. Russian media promoted the narrative of an "illegitimate fascist junta" in Kyiv.

Ukrainian nationalist volunteer battalions played a significant role in the fighting. Some of these groups have far-right affiliations, which Russia has used in its propaganda.

Russian nationalist fighters and groups also supported the separatists, motivated by protecting Russian speakers and reclaiming perceived Russian lands. Both sides used nationalist narratives to mobilize support. Ukraine emphasized defending its sovereignty, while Russia and the separatists claimed to protect Russian speakers from a "fascist junta".

The Full-Scale Invasion: Nationalism Unleashed

The conflict escalated into a full-scale Russian invasion in February 2022. This was driven by Russia's view of Ukraine within its sphere of influence and opposition to its westward alignment.

Russia's justifications, rooted in nationalist ideology, included "demilitarization" and "denazification," protecting Russian speakers, and preventing NATO expansion. Putin denied Ukraine's right to exist as a sovereign nation.

However, the invasion has been met with fierce Ukrainian national resistance, demonstrating strong national unity and a commitment to sovereignty. Russia's territorial claims are also driven by nationalist ambitions, including the historical concept of "Novorossiya".

Diverging Ideologies: The Core of the Conflict

Ukrainian and Russian nationalism have evolved into opposing ideologies. Ukrainian nationalism emphasizes an independent, sovereign state with its own language, culture, and history, distinct from Russia. It carries a strong historical memory of oppression by Russia and seeks closer ties with the West.

Russian nationalism, particularly under Putin, emphasizes a strong state, great power status, and a unique civilizational identity. It often minimizes Ukrainian identity and statehood, promoting a narrative of shared unity and viewing Western influence as a threat.

This fundamental divergence in understanding Ukrainian identity and sovereignty is at the heart of the conflict. Ukraine seeks to break free from Russia's orbit, while Russia aims to maintain or restore its influence. Conflicting historical narratives further exacerbate this divide, making resolution incredibly challenging.

Conclusion: The Enduring Power of Nationalism

Nationalism has been a central force in the Russia-Ukraine conflict, shaping historical relations and driving the current devastation. Competing nationalisms, rooted in अलग-अलग historical experiences, intensified after the pivotal events of 2014. NATO expansion became a key theme in Russian nationalist justifications for intervention. The Donbas conflict and the full-scale invasion are direct consequences of these deeply entrenched ideologies.

The irreconcilable differences in Ukrainian and Russian national visions suggest a long and complex conflict with significant implications for regional stability. The enduring legacy of nationalism will continue to fuel animosities and complicate the path to peace.